Rum
A glass of dark rum
TypeDistilled beverage
OriginBarbados, Caribbean
Introduced17th century
Alcohol by volume37.5–80%
Proof (US)75–160° US / 66–140° UK
ColourClear, brown, black, red or golden
FlavourSweet to dry
Ingredientssugarcane molasses or sugarcane juice; yeast; water
Variantsrhum agricole, ron miel, tafia
Related productscachaça, charanda, clairin, grogue, grog, Seco Herrerano
Carcinogenicity: IARC group 1

Rum is a liquor made by fermenting and then distilling sugarcane molasses or sugarcane juice. The distillate, initially a clear liquid, is often aged in barrels.[1] Rum originated in the Caribbean in the 17th century, where it was likely first created by enslaved people on sugar plantations,[2] but today it is produced in nearly every major sugar-producing region of the world.

Rums are produced in various styles. Light rums are commonly used in cocktails like the Mojito and Daiquiri, while "aged" or "dark" rums offer deeper flavor profiles and are often drunk straight (U.S. English) or neat (Commonwealth English), iced ("on the rocks"), or used in cooking.

Historically, rum has served as a medium of economic exchange, playing a role in the triangular trade, slave trade, and colonial economies of the West Indies and British colonies. It has deep cultural associations with the Royal Navy and maritime history, and has been used to fund enterprises such as organized crime, and military insurgencies such as the American Revolution and the Australian Rum Rebellion.

Etymology

The origin of the word "rum" is unclear. The most widely accepted hypothesis is that it is related to "rumbullion", a beverage made from boiling sugar cane stalks,[3] or possibly "rumbustion", which was a slang word for "uproar" or "tumult";[4][5] a noisy uncontrollable exuberance,[3] though the origin of those words and the nature of the relationship are unclear.[6][7][4] Both words surfaced in English about the same time as rum did (1651 for "rumbullion", and before 1654 "rum").[6]

There have been various other theories:

Regardless of the original source, the name was already in common use by 1654, when the General Court of Connecticut ordered the confiscations of "whatsoever Barbados liquors, commonly called rum, kill the devil and the like".[10] A short time later in May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts also decided to make illegal the sale of strong liquor "whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc".[2]

In current usage, the name used for a rum is often based on its place of origin.

Rhum is a French term for a rum made from fresh sugar cane juice rather than molasses, in French-speaking locales such as Martinique.[11] A rhum vieux ("old rum") is an aged French rum that meets several other requirements.

Some of the many other names for rum are Nelson's blood, kill-devil, demon water, pirate's drink, navy neater, and Barbados water.[12] A version of rum from Newfoundland is referred to by the name screech, while some low-grade West Indies rums are called tafia.[13]

History

Precursors and origins

Many historians now believe that rum-making found its way to the Caribbean islands along with sugarcane and its cultivation methods from Brazil.[25] The traditional history of modern-style rum tells of its invention in the Caribbean, in the 17th century, by slaves on sugarcane plantations, who discovered that molasses, a by-product of the sugar refining process, could be fermented to produce alcohol, and then distilled. The earliest record, in a 1651 document from Barbados, mentions the island of Nevis in particular:[26]

The chief fuddling they make in the island is Rumbullion, alias Kill-Divil, and this is made of sugar canes distilled, a hot, hellish, and terrible liquor.

By the late 17th century rum had replaced French brandy as the exchange alcohol of choice in the triangle trade. Canoemen and guards on the African side of the trade, who had previously been paid in brandy, were now paid in rum.[25]

Colonial North America

After the development of rum in the Caribbean, the drink's popularity spread to Colonial North America. To support the demand for the drink, the first rum distillery in the Thirteen Colonies was set up in 1664 on Staten Island, NY. Boston, Massachusetts, had a distillery three years later.[27] The manufacture of rum became early colonial New England's largest and most prosperous industry.[28] New England became a distilling center also due to the technical, metalworking and cooperage skills and abundant lumber; the rum produced there was lighter: more like whiskey. Much of the rum was exported, and distillers in Newport of Rhode Island even made an extra strong rum specifically to be used as a slave currency.[25] Rhode Island rum even joined gold as an accepted currency in Europe for a period of time.[29] While New England triumphed in price and consistency, Europeans still viewed the best rums as coming from the Caribbean.[25] Estimates of rum consumption in the American colonies before the American Revolutionary War had every man, woman, or child drinking an average of 3 imperial gallons (14 L) of rum each year.[30]

In the 18th century, ever increasing demands for sugar, molasses, rum, and slaves led to a feedback loop that intensified the triangular trade.[31] When France banned the production of rum in their New World possessions to end the competition with domestically produced brandy, New England distillers became able to undercut producers in the British West Indies by buying molasses cheaply from French sugar plantations. The outcry from the British rum industry led to the Molasses Act 1733, which levied a prohibitive tax on molasses imported into the Thirteen Colonies from foreign countries or colonies. Rum at this time accounted for approximately 80% of New England's exports, and paying the duty would have put the distilleries out of business, so that compliance with and enforcement of the act were minimal.[25] Strict enforcement of the Molasses Act's successor, the Sugar Act 1764, may have been an additional factor in causing the American Revolution.[30] In the slave trade, rum was also used as a medium of exchange. For example, the slave Venture Smith, whose history was later published, had been purchased in Africa for four gallons of rum plus a piece of calico.

In "The Doctor's Secret Journal", an account of the happenings at Fort Michilimackinac in northern Michigan from 1769 to 1772 by Daniel Morison, a surgeon's mate, it was noted that there was not much for the men to do and drinking rum was very popular.[32] In fact, Ensign Robert Johnstone, one of the officers, "thought proper to turn trader by selling (the) common rum to the soldiers & all others by whom he might gain a penny in this clandestine Manner". To conceal this theft, "he was observed to have filled up several Barrels of common rum with boiling water to make up the Leakage".[32]: 26  Ensign Johnstone had no trouble selling this diluted rum.

The popularity of rum continued after the American Revolution; George Washington insisted on a barrel of Barbados rum at his 1789 inauguration.[33]

Rum started to play an important role in the political system, and candidates attempted to influence the outcome of an election through their generosity with rum. The people would attend the hustings to see which candidate appeared more generous. The candidate was expected to drink with the people to show he was independent and truly a republican.[34][35]

Eventually, the restrictions on sugar imports from the British West Indies, combined with the development of American whiskeys, led to a decline in the drink's popularity in North America.

The association of rum with the Royal Navy began in 1655 when a Royal Navy fleet captured the island of Jamaica. With the availability of domestically produced rum, the British changed the daily ration of liquor given to seamen from French brandy to rum.[36]

Rum's association with piracy began with English privateers' trading in the valuable commodity. During the Golden Age of Piracy, these English privateers and pirates in the Caribbean typically preferred to plunder the shores and ships of the Spanish Empire. However, in contrast to the bounty of rum in the English colonies, Spain forbade the production of rum across its colonial sugarcane plantations, as a protectionist measure for its own industries. As such, pirates actually were most likely to steal Spanish wine and brandy, and drink rum upon returning to Jamaica or Barbados.[37][38] Despite this, the association between the rum and piracy was strengthened in popular culture by literary works such as Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island,[39] and Blackbeard's famous appetite for rum.[37][38]

Naval rum was originally a blend mixed from rums produced in the West Indies. It was initially supplied at a strength of 100 degrees (UK) proof, 57% alcohol by volume (ABV), as that was the only strength that could be tested (by the gunpowder test) before the invention of the hydrometer.[40] The term "Navy strength" is used in modern Britain to specify spirits bottled at 57% ABV.[40] In 1866 the Navy fixed the issued strength at 95.5 proof (defined as "4.5 under-Proof", equal to 54.6% ABV).[41]

While the ration was originally given neat or mixed with lime juice, the practice of watering down the rum began around 1740. To help minimize the effect of the alcohol on his sailors, Admiral Edward Vernon had the rum ration watered, producing a mixture that became known as grog. Many believe the term was coined in honour of the grogram cloak Admiral Vernon wore in rough weather.[42] The Royal Navy continued to give its sailors a daily rum ration, known as a "tot", until the practice was abolished on 31 July 1970.[43]

Today, a tot (totty) of rum is still issued on special occasions, using an order to "splice the mainbrace", which may only be given by a member of the royal family or, on certain occasions, the admiralty board in the UK, with similar restrictions in other Commonwealth navies.[44] Recently, such occasions have included royal marriages or birthdays, or special anniversaries. In the days of daily rum rations, the order to "splice the mainbrace" meant double rations would be issued.

A legend involving naval rum and Horatio Nelson says that following his victory and death at the Battle of Trafalgar, Nelson's body was preserved in a cask of rum to allow transportation back to England. Upon arrival, however, the cask was opened and found to be empty of rum. The [pickled] body was removed and, upon inspection, it was discovered that the sailors had drilled a hole in the bottom of the cask and drunk all the rum, hence the term "Nelson's blood" being used to describe rum. It also serves as the basis for the term tapping the admiral being used to describe surreptitiously sucking liquor from a cask through a straw. The details of the story are disputed, as many historians claim the cask contained French brandy, while others claim that the term originated from a toast to Admiral Nelson.[45] Variations of the story, involving different notable corpses, have been in circulation for many years. The official record states merely that the body was placed in "refined spirits" and does not go into further detail.[46]

The Royal New Zealand Navy was the last naval force to give sailors a free daily tot of rum. The Royal Canadian Navy still gives a rum ration on special occasions; the rum is usually provided out of the commanding officer's fund and is 150 proof (75%). The order to "splice the mainbrace" (i.e. take rum) can be given by the monarch as commander-in-chief, as occurred on 29 June 2010, when Queen Elizabeth II gave the order to the Royal Canadian Navy as part of the celebration of their 100th anniversary.

Colonial Australia

Rum became an important trade good in the early period of the colony of New South Wales. The value of rum was based upon the lack of coinage among the population of the colony, and due to the drink's ability to allow its consumer to temporarily forget about the lack of creature comforts available in the new colony. The value of rum was such that convict settlers could be induced to work the lands owned by officers of the New South Wales Corps. Due to rum's popularity among the settlers, the colony gained a reputation for drunkenness, though their alcohol consumption was less than levels commonly consumed in England at the time.[47]

Australia was so far away from Britain that the penal colony, established in 1788, faced severe food shortages, compounded by poor conditions for growing crops and the shortage of livestock. Eventually, it was realized that it might be more economical to supply the settlement of Sydney from India, instead of from Britain. By 1817, two out of every three ships which left Sydney went to Java or India, and cargoes from Bengal fed and equipped the colony. Casks of Bengal Rum (which was reputed to be stronger and less sweet than Jamaican Rum) were brought back in the depths of nearly every ship from India. The cargoes were floated ashore clandestinely before the ships docked, by the Royal Marines regiment which controlled the sales. It was against the direct orders of the governors, who had ordered the searching of every docking ship. British merchants in India grew wealthy by sending ships to Sydney "laden half with rice and half with bad spirits".[48]

Rum was intimately involved in the only military takeover of an Australian government, known as the Rum Rebellion. When William Bligh became governor of the colony, he attempted to remedy the perceived problem of drunkenness by outlawing the use of rum as a medium of exchange. In response to Bligh's attempt to regulate the use of rum, in 1808 the New South Wales Corps marched with fixed bayonets to Government House and placed Bligh under arrest. The mutineers continued to control the colony until the arrival of Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810.[49]

Asia

In India, rum was not traditionally produced, as making jaggery from sugarcane does not leave molasses as a by-product. Commercial production began when Western-style cane sugar production processes made molasses available, allowing sugarcane plantations to yield high economic returns. Production expanded rapidly to meet both domestic and export markets, though protectionist policies excluded Great Britain, and continued after the end of the colonial era. Today, most spirits produced in India labelled as whisky, vodka and gin are made with a neutral rum-derived base.[50]

Commercial rum production was introduced into Taiwan along with commercial sugar production during the Japanese colonial period. Rum production continued under the Republic of China, however, it was neglected by Taiwan Tobacco and Liquor Corporation which held the national liquor monopoly.[51] The industry diversified after privatization and the de-monopolization of the Taiwanese alcoholic beverage industry.[52]

Categorization

Dividing rum into meaningful groupings is complicated because no single standard exists for what constitutes rum. Instead, rum is defined by the varying rules and laws of the different nations producing the spirit. The differences in definitions include issues such as spirit proof, minimum ageing, and even naming standards.

Mexico requires rum be aged a minimum of eight months; the Dominican Republic, Panama and Venezuela require two years. Naming standards also vary. Argentina defines rums as white, gold, light, and extra light. Grenada and Barbados use the terms white, overproof, and matured, while the United States defines rum, rum liqueur, and flavored rum.[53] In Australia, rum is divided into dark or red rum (underproof known as UP, overproof known as OP, and triple distilled) and white rum.

Despite these differences in standards and nomenclature, the following divisions are provided to help show the wide variety of rums produced.

Regional variations

Rum production is not regulated by a single global standard, leading to a wide variety of styles. Historically, it was common to group styles of rum by the language of the colonial power that influenced production methods, though as time went on, and former colonies have created their unique rum identities and experimented with new technology, this classification is outdated.[54]

Other regional specialties

Several other categories of sugar cane spirit exist which are distinct from the primary traditions of Caribbean rum.

Geographical indication

In an effort to protect the quality and reputation of their countries' rum exports, several countries have passed, or are considering passing, geographical indication (GI) protections for the manufacturing process of their cane spirits. The following are some of the more notable examples of rum GIs, though the list is not exhaustive:

Attempts at geographical indication

Other protections

Commercial categorization

There is no universal standard way of categorizing rum. However, retailers and consumers often use the following terms to organize and describe rum, despite experts noting that this sort of categorization is limiting.[69] The color of a rum does not indicate how long it has been aged, or if it has been aged at all, as an aged rum can be filtered clear, and an unaged rum can be dyed gold or even black.[70]

Gargano categorization

Luca Gargano, a prominent rum expert, has proposed an alternative to the typical commercial categorization scheme. He proposed that rums be categorized not by their color or proof, but by the artisanal nature of the production process. His classification method divides rums based on 4 criteria:

Jamaican Ester Counts

Historically, Jamaican rum marks were categorized by their ester levels, specifically ethyl acetate, measured in grams per hectoliter of absolute alcohol, to determine their value in blending.[79] These metrics are obsolete, though many rums still advertise them as a reference to rum history.

Production method

Unlike some other spirits, rum has no defined production methods. Instead, rum production is based on traditional styles that vary between locations and distillers.

Harvesting

Sugarcane is traditionally collected by sugarcane machete[80] cutters who cut the cane near to the ground, where the largest concentration of sugars is found, before lopping off the green tips. A good cutter can cut three tons of cane per day on average, but this is a small fraction of what a machine can cut. Therefore, mechanised harvesting is now utilized.

Extraction

Sugarcane comprises around 63% to 73% water, 12% to 16% soluble sugar, 2% to 3% non-sugars, and 11% to 16% fiber.[81] To extract the water and sugar juice, the harvested cane is cleaned, sliced into small lengths, and milled (pressed).

Fermentation

Most rum is produced from molasses, a byproduct of the process that makes sugar from sugarcane. A rum's quality is dependent on the quality and variety of the sugar cane that was used to create it. The sugar cane's quality depends on the soil type and climate it was grown in. Within the Caribbean, much of this molasses is from Brazil.[33] A notable exception is the French-speaking islands, where sugarcane juice is the preferred base ingredient.[3] In Brazil itself, the distilled alcoholic drink derived from cane juice is distinguished from rum and called cachaça.[82]

Yeast and water are added to the base ingredient to start the fermentation process.[83] While some rum producers allow wild yeasts to perform the fermentation, most use specific strains of yeast to help provide a consistent taste and predictable fermentation period.[1] Dunder, the yeast-rich foam from previous fermentations, is the traditional yeast source in Jamaica.[84] "The yeast employed will determine the final taste and aroma profile," says Jamaican master blender Joy Spence.[3] Distillers that make lighter rums, such as Bacardi, prefer to use faster-working yeasts.[3] The use of slower-working yeasts causes more esters to accumulate during fermentation, allowing for a fuller-tasting rum.[1]

Fermentation products like 2-ethyl-3-methyl butyric acid and esters like ethyl butyrate and ethyl hexanoate give rise to the sweetness and fruitiness of rum.[85]

Distillation

The fermented product is then distilled. As with all other aspects of rum production, no standard method is used for distillation. While some producers work in batches using pot stills, most rum production is done using column still distillation.[1] Pot still output contains more congeners than the output from column stills, resulting in fuller-tasting rums.[3]

Ageing and blending

Many countries require rum to be barrel-aged for at least one year.[86] Ageing commonly uses used bourbon casks,[1] but any type of wooden cask or stainless-steel tank may be used. Rum ages colourless in stainless steel, but becomes dark in wood. Freshly distilled, especially pot-stilled, rum often has a meaty or leathery, sulfurous scent owing largely to the concentration of esters and known in centuries past as hogo, but aged rum displays this much less, although agricole and some Demerara and Jamaican rums retain a marked note of it.[87][88]

As most rum-producing areas have a hot, tropical climate, rum matures much faster than is typical in cooler climates for spirits such as whisky or brandy. An indication of this higher rate is the "angels' share", the amount lost to evaporation: about 10% per year for rum, while in France and Scotland ageing loss is typically 2%.[1]

The final stage after ageing is usually blending rum for a consistent flavour.[89] During blending, light rums may be filtered to remove any colour gained during ageing; for dark rums, caramel may be added for colour.

There have been attempts to match the molecular composition of aged rum significantly faster using heat and light for accelerated artificial ageing.[90]

In cuisine

Mixology

Rum is the foundation of numerous classic cocktails. Many have their histories rooted in the Caribbean, such as rum punch, the Cuba libre, and Daiquiri, while American tiki bars popularized tropical-themed drinks such as the Mai Tai, the Long Island iced tea,[91] the Jungle Bird[92] and the zombie. Other widely-known rum cocktails include the piña colada, the mojito, and a precursor of the classic Spanish sangria known as sangaree.[93] Cold-weather drinks made with rum include the rum toddy and hot buttered rum.[94]

Regional specialties

Regional specialties include Bermuda's Dark 'n' Stormy, made with dark rum and ginger beer, the Painkiller from the British Virgin Islands, and a New Orleans cocktail known as the Hurricane. Jagertee is a mixture of rum and black tea popular in colder parts of Central Europe and served on special occasions in the British Army, where it is called Gunfire. Ti' Punch, French Creole for "petit punch", is a traditional drink in parts of the French West Indies. Coquito is an eggnog-like traditional Christmastime coconut-based drink from Puerto Rico.

Rum may also be used as a base in the manufacture of liqueurs and syrups, such as falernum and Mamajuana.

Cooking and Baking

Rum, particularly dark or black rum (or cheaper rum essence), is used in a number of cooked dishes as a flavoring agent in items such as rum cakes. It is commonly used to macerate fruit used in fruitcakes, in the preparation of rumtopf and Joe Frogger cookies, and in marinades for some Caribbean dishes. Rum can be used in flambé dishes, such as bananas Foster. Rum can also be used in raw or cold dishes so that the alcohol is not cooked off, such as in rum balls, hard sauces, or incorporated into ice cream, often with raisins, to create a flavor of ice cream known as rum raisin.

See also

References

  1. Vaughan, Mark (1 June 1994). "Tropical Delights". Cigar Aficionado. Archived from the original on 9 March 2005.
  2. Blue 2004, p. 73.
  3. Pacult, F. Paul (July 2002). "Mapping Rum By Region". Wine Enthusiast Magazine. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013.
  4. Curtis 2006, p. 34–35.
  5. Hans, Sloane (1707). A Voyage To the Islands Madera, Barbados, Nieves, S Christophers and Jamaica (vol. I ed.). Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
  6. Liberman, Anatoly (6 October 2010). "The Rum History of the Word "Rum"". OUPblog. Archived from the original on 26 February 2020.
  7. "Rum". Oxford English Dictionary.
  8. "rum booze". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  9. Blue 2004, p. 72–73.
  10. "The West Indies Rum Distillery Limited". WIRD Ltd. 2009. Archived from the original on 16 August 2012.
  11. Curtis, Wayne. "The Five Biggest Rum Myths". Liquor.com.
  12. Rajiv, M (12 March 2003). "A Caribbean drink". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 3 February 2007.
  13. Curtis 2006, p. 14.
  14. Blue 2004, p. 72.
  15. Jákl, Jiří (23 September 2021). "Fruit Wines and Sugar Cane Wine". Alcohol in Early Java. Brill. pp. 72–87. doi:10.1163/9789004417038_006. ISBN 978-90-04-41703-8.
  16. Sanchez, Priscilla C. (2008). Philippine Fermented Foods: Principles and Technology. UP Press. p. 124. ISBN 9789715425544.
  17. Demetrio, Feorillo Petronilo A. III (2012). "Colonization and Alcoholic Beverages of Early Visayans from Samar and Leyte". Malay. 25 (1): 1–18.
  18. Jákl, Jiří (November 2017). "An unholy brew: alcohol in pre-Islamic Java". The Newsletter (International Institute for Asian Studies). 17.
  19. "Arkeologerna: Skatter i havet". UR Play. Archived from the original on 12 August 2013.
  20. Moseley, Humphrey (1657). A True & Exact History of the Island of Barbados. hdl:2047/D20235165.
  21. Dembińska, Maria; Thomas, Magdalena; Weaver, William Woys (April 2001). "Food and Drink in Medieval Poland: Rediscovering a Cuisine of the Past". Speculum. 76 (2): 433–434. doi:10.2307/2903476. ISSN 0038-7134. JSTOR 2903476.
  22. Galloway, J. H. (April 1977). "The Mediterranean Sugar Industry". Geographical Review. 67 (2): 190. Bibcode:1977GeoRv..67..177G. doi:10.2307/214019. JSTOR 214019.
  23. Cavalcante, Messias Soares (2011). A verdadeira história da cachaça. São Paulo: Sá Editora. p. 608. ISBN 978-85-88193-62-8.
  24. Achaya, K. T. (1994). Indian Food Tradition A Historical Companion. Oxford University Press. pp. 59, 60. ISBN 978-0195644166.
  25. Standage, Tom (2006). A History of the World in 6 Glasses. New York, New York: Walker Publishing Company. ISBN 9780802715524.
  26. Blue 2004, p. 70.
  27. Blue 2004, p. 74.
  28. Roueché, Berton (1963). "Alcohol in Human Culture". In Salvatore, Pablo Lucia (ed.). Alcohol and Civilization. McGraw-Hill. p. 178. OCLC 923100544.
  29. Blue 2004, p. 76.
  30. Tannahill 1973, p. 295.
  31. Tannahill 1973, p. 296.
  32. Morison, Daniel (1960). Mat, George (ed.). The Doctor's Secret Journal: A True Account of Violence At Fort Michilimackinac Written in 1769 - 1772. Lansing, Michigan: The Fort Mackinac Division Press.
  33. Frost, Doug (6 January 2005). "Rum makers distill unsavory history into fresh products". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 20 June 2005.
  34. Rorabaugh 1981, pp. 152–154.
  35. Buckner, Timothy Ryan (2005). "Constructing Identities on the Frontier of Slavery, Natchez Mississippi, 1760–1860". p. 119.
  36. Blue 2004, p. 77.
  37. Pierini, Marco. "Pirates and Rum, Debunking a Myth". Got Rum? Magazine.
  38. O'Connell, Adam. "Why did rum become associated with sailors and pirates?". Master of Malt blog.
  39. Pack 1982, p. 15.
  40. "Navy strength - a nautical history, section Proving the Proof". Sub 13 cocktail bar. 22 September 2017. Archived from the original on 19 February 2020.
  41. "Navy Rum Strength isn't 57%". Cocktail Wonk. 17 August 2021.
  42. Tannahill 1973, p. 273.
  43. Pack 1982, p. 123.
  44. "Chapter 6: Supplementary Income, para.0661 "Extra and other issues"" (PDF). nationalarchives.gov.uk, Ministry of Defence regulations.
  45. Blue 2004, p. 78.
  46. Mikkelson, Barbara (9 May 2006). "Body found in barrel". Urban Legends Reference Pages. Snopes.com. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022.
  47. Clarke 2002, p. 26.
  48. Blainey 1966.
  49. Clarke 2002, p. 29.
  50. DOCTOR, VIKRAM. "Bengal rum and India's forgotten spirits history". classbarmag.com. Class Bar Magazine.
  51. du Toit, Nick (29 July 2011). "Yo-ho-ho and a bottle of Koxinga Gold rum". taiwantoday.tw. Taiwan Today.
  52. Koutsakis, George (6 June 2021). "Will Japanese whisky be eclipsed by Taiwan? The island's gin and rum also show promise – with one distillery promising spirits 'good enough for God'". South China Morning Post.
  53. Blue 2004, p. 81–82.
  54. Cate, Martin. "A New Way to Think About Rum Classification".
  55. Peskett, Stuart. "How to find the best premium rums - Club Oenologique".
  56. Selsky, Andrew (15 September 2003). "Age-old drink losing kick". The Miami Herald.
  57. "Hogo: The Funkadelic Rum You Need to Know".
  58. To, Jamaicans. "The drink that nearly knocked me out with one sniff - BBC News".
  59. Lazor, Drew (29 August 2018). "How Wray & Ting Became the Unofficial Drink of Jamaica". PUNCH.
  60. Meara, Mallory (2021). Girly drinks: a world history of women and alcohol. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Hanover Square Press. p. 316. ISBN 978-1-335-28240-8. OCLC 1273729039.
  61. Pietrek, Matt (9 October 2024). "Jamaica's Rum GI Changes - Overview and Analysis". Rum Wonk.
  62. "Rhum de la Martinique GI". QualiGeo (in Italian). 14 January 2008.
  63. Pietrek, Matt (13 November 2020). "Guadeloupe's Rhum GI and How it Compares to Martinique's AOC". Cocktail Wonk.
  64. Waterworth, Shay (3 March 2020). "Why Barbados rum cannot accept WIRD proposals". Drinks International.
  65. Waterworth, Shay (26 February 2020). "West Indies Rum Distillery responds to Barbados GI proposal". Drinks International.
  66. Seale, Richard. "WHY BARBADOS NEEDS A GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATOR FOR RUM". Issuu.
  67. Pietrek, Matt (21 November 2023). "Caribbean Rum Rules (GIs) - A Quick Reference Guide". Rum Wonk.
  68. Pietrek, Matt (13 November 2022). "Why Does Jamaica Limit Its Rum to 1600 Esters?". Rum Wonk.
  69. Pietrek, Matt. "Rum Categories: Where Theory and Practice Collide".
  70. Difford, Simon. "Blended gold rums (1-3 years old pot and column)".
  71. Pietrek, Matt. "Rum Categories: Where Theory and Practice Collide".
  72. Pietrek, Matt; Smith, Carrie (2022). Modern Caribbean Rum. Wonk Press. ISBN 978-0-578-27139-2.
  73. "Rum | Caribbean, Distillation & Aging | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 1 October 2023.
  74. Cate, Martin; Cate, Rebecca (2016). Smuggler's Cove: Exotic Cocktails, Rum, and the Cult of Tiki. Ten Speed Press. ISBN 978-1607747321.
  75. Pietrek, Matt. "Minimum Age Statements – Can We Do Better?".
  76. Sachs, Tony. "Ron Zacapa: Barrel Aging and Coloring".
  77. Gargano, Luca. "The Gargano Classification: how to distinguish great rum". Velier.
  78. Pietrek, Matt. "The Gargano Files". Cocktail Wonk.
  79. Pietrek, Matt. "Modern Caribbean rum – Classifying Rum Preview Chapter".
  80. "Sugarcane Machete". National Museum of American History. 2005.
  81. "Chapter 3 Sugar cane". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
  82. "The Pirate Surgeon's Journal: Golden Age of Piracy: Booze, Sailors, Pirates and Health, Page 10".
  83. Fahrasmane; Ganou-Parfait (June 1998). "Microbial Flora of Rum Fermentation Media". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 84 (6): 921–928. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.1998.00380.x. ISSN 1364-5072. S2CID 59361248.
  84. Cooper 1982, p. 54.
  85. Nicol, Denis A. (2003). "Rum". In Lea, Andrew G.H.; Piggott, John R. (eds.). Fermented Beverage Production. Springer, Boston, MA. pp. 263–287. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-0187-9_12. ISBN 978-0-306-47706-5.
  86. "Consolidated Federal Laws of Canada, Food and Drug Regulations". laws.justice.gc.ca.
  87. "hogo". Spirits & Distilling. Oxford University Press.
  88. Beard, Drew (17 September 2021). "Review: Smith & Cross Traditional Jamaican Rum". Drinkhacker. Christopher Null.
  89. "Manufacturing Rum". Archived from the original on 20 November 2003.
  90. Curtiss, Wayne. "One Man's Quest to Make 20-Year-Old Rum in Just Six Days". Wired. No. 30 May 2017. Archived from the original on 30 May 2017.
  91. Dubrin, Beverly (2010). Tea Culture: History, Traditions, Celebrations, Recipes & More. Charlesbridge Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60734-363-9.
  92. Anderman, Jeff (31 August 2021). "Jungle Bird Cocktail". Drunkard's Almanac.
  93. Haigh, Ted (2 September 2020). "History Lesson: The Sangaree". Imbibe Magazine.
  94. Cooper 1982, p. 54–55.

Sources

Further reading

Wikiquote has quotations related to Rum. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rum. Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Rum. Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on