Olivenza Olivença
Municipality
FlagCoat of arms
OlivenzaLocation in the Spanish–Portuguese borderShow map of ExtremaduraOlivenzaOlivenza (Spain)Show map of Spain
Coordinates: 38°41′9″N 7°6′3″W / 38.68583°N 7.10083°W / 38.68583; -7.10083
Country[a]Spain
Autonomous communityExtremadura
ProvinceBadajoz
Government
 • MayorManuel José González Andrade (PSOE)
Area
 • Total430.1 km2 (166.1 sq mi)
Elevation327 m (1,073 ft)
Population (2024-01-01)[1]
 • Total11,742
 • Density27.30/km2 (70.71/sq mi)
Time zoneUTC+1 (CET)
 • Summer (DST)UTC+2 (CEST)
Postal code06100
WebsiteTown Hall (in Spanish)

Olivenza (Spanish: [oliˈβenθa] ⓘ) or Olivença (Portuguese: [oliˈvẽsɐ] ⓘ) is a town in southwestern Spain, close to the Portugal–Spain border. It is a municipality belonging to the province of Badajoz, and to the wider autonomous community of Extremadura.

The town of Olivença was under Portuguese sovereignty from 1297 (Treaty of Alcañices) to 1801, when it was occupied by Spain during the War of the Oranges and ceded that year under the Treaty of Badajoz. Spain has since administered the territory (now split into two municipalities, Olivenza and Táliga), whereas Portugal invokes the self-revocation of the Treaty of Badajoz, plus the Congress of Vienna of 1815, to claim the return of the territory. In spite of the territorial dispute between Portugal and Spain, the issue has not been a sensitive matter in the relations between these two countries.[2][3]

Olivenza and other neighbouring Spanish (La Codosera, Alburquerque and Badajoz) and Portuguese (Arronches, Campo Maior, Estremoz, Portalegre and Elvas) towns reached an agreement in 2008 to create a euroregion.[4][5]

Geography

Olivenza is located on the left (east) bank of the Guadiana river,[6] at an equal distance of 24 km (15 miles) south of Elvas in Portugal and Badajoz in Spain. The territory is triangular, with a smaller side resting on the Guadiana and the opposite vertex entering south-east and surrounded by Spanish territory. Besides the city, the municipality of Olivenza also includes other minor villages: San Francisco (Portuguese: São Francisco), San Rafael (São Rafael), Villarreal (Vila Real), Santo Domingo de Guzman (São Domingos de Gusmão), San Benito de la Contienda (São Bento da Contenda), and San Jorge de Alor (São Jorge da Lor).

The catchment area which drains Olivenza consists of irregular water streams regularly drying up in the summer.[7] The Olivenza river—whose water is dammed up in the reservoir of Piedra Aguda, opened in 1956 and with a capacity of 16.3 hm3 (21.3 million cubic yards)—discharges into the Guadiana,[7] leaving the city to its west and, then, south. Closer to the city (which is sandwiched in between the course of the lesser creeks of the Arroyo de la Charca and the Arroyo de la Higuera),[8] there is an artificial pond, the charca of Ramapallas.[7]

History

Medieval and early modern history

It is possible the settlement did not exist during the Muslim period.[9] A 1278 document refers to the place as 'populated again', but this is not conclusive.[10] Badajoz and its surrounding territory (including the lands around Olivenza) were conquered by Alfonso IX of León in 1230.[11] Taken away from the alfoz of Badajoz, the Knights Templar had occupied the territory already by 1258,[12] founding an encomienda in Olivenza integrated in the Bailiwick of Jerez de los Caballeros.[13] They proceeded to build a castle and a church as core of the hamlet, following the templar model of repopulation.[14]

The second half of the 13th century saw continual territorial disputes between the Order of the Temple and the council of Badajoz over the lands north of the Fragamuñoz creek, and the municipal militias of Badajoz invaded Cheles, Alconchel and Barcarrota in 1272, although those territories were retroceded to the Order by means of a 1277 settlement.[15] Soon later, by 1278,[16] Alfonso X recognised the jurisdiction of the Council of Badajoz and the Diocese over Olivenza, putting an end to the Templar control over the hamlet. Amid a situation of unrest in the Crown of Castile in the wake of the death of King Sancho IV, King Dinis of Portugal forced King Ferdinand IV to sign the Treaty of Alcañices in 1297 and cede, amongst other possessions, Olivenza to the Kingdom of Portugal.[17] On 4 January 1298, Dinis granted Olivenza a foral (charter) similar to that of Elvas.[18]

Following the start of the war between Castile and Portugal in 1640 (variously known as Secession, Aclamation, Restoration or Portuguese Independence War),[20] Olivenza was taken in 1657 by forces loyal to the Spanish Monarchy led by Neapolitan governor Francesco Tuttavilla, Duke of San Germán after a long siege.[21] By means of the 1668 Treaty of Lisbon, Olivenza was returned to the Kingdom of Portugal.[22]

In the context of the War of the Spanish Succession, the Ajuda Bridge was used for the retreat of the Anglo-Portuguese army after they were crushed at the Battle of La Gudiña in May 1709.[23] The victorious Spanish Bourbon army led by the Marquis de Bay ordered its destruction to prevent the Portuguese using it again.[24]

19th century

In the wake of the Portuguese refusal to enter an alliance with France and Spain against Britain, the brief War of the Oranges began in 1801, with the French troops marching on Portugal, then followed by Spanish troops. Olivenza capitulated to the Spanish army led by Godoy on 20 May 1801.[25][26] The 1801 Treaty of Badajoz putting an end to the war returned to Portugal the occupied towns except those on the left bank of the Guadiana river (the territory of Olivenza),[25] which were ceded to Spain, including its inhabitants, on a 'perpetual' basis. The Treaty also stipulated that the breach of any of its articles would lead to its cancellation.[27]

20th century

The municipality lost an important chunk of its population from 1960 to 1975, with many working-age migrants moving to other Spanish cities (Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao, Lleida) in the wake of the implementation of the Stabilization Plans but also moving abroad to countries such as Switzerland, Germany and France.[32]

21st century

Demographics

The total population is 11,871 (2021). The total area is 750 km2 (290 square miles). Like the surrounding regions, population density is low, at 11 inhabitants per square kilometre (28 inhabitants per square mile).

There are still traces of Portuguese culture and language in the people, although the younger generations speak Spanish.

At the beginning of the 1940s the town was reportedly mainly Portuguese-speaking (mother language spoken at home), even after close to 150 years under Spanish control. It was after the 1940s, under Franco dictatorship, that a gradual language shift towards Spanish as native language took place as it looked to unite Spain and erase all signs of other cultures: the typically Portuguese looking streets had their names changed to Spanish, the Portuguese language was banned (making most people only able to speak Portuguese secretly inside their home), the education of children was controlled and even the names of Portuguese people changed to Spanish equivalent names (although some families kept using their Portuguese names and attributing Portuguese nicknames per family as an act of rebellion against the government).

After the 1970s, there was an ease on the early dictatorship policy.

Since 2021, around 1,300 inhabitants (8% of the town's population) have asked for dual citizenship, and about 92% have not acquired Portuguese citizenship. As of 2018, 1,500 inhabitants (about 12% of the population) are bilingual Portuguese-Spanish (mostly among those born before 1950).

The European Commission showed some concern over the years regarding the need to protect the Portuguese language in the area. After some time, the children of Olivenza started learning Portuguese in school again.

Even in the twenty-first century, after the Franco dictatorship, many who tried to stand for their heritage and culture were declared personae non gratae and some were accused of "disrespecting the Spanish flag" for protecting the Portuguese language.[41]

Landmarks

In 1964, Olivenza became one of the first municipalities in the province of Badajoz that earned a heritage protection status of conjunto histórico-artístico for their historic cores.[42] The report for the declaration cited that the city of Olivenza, "surrounded by a beautiful landscape of pasture and farmland, dominated by the imposing castle's keep", "offers a number of buildings, enclosures and places of notable importance in the monumental aspect".[43]

Some landmarks include the church of Saint Mary of the Castle (Spanish: Iglesia de Santa María del Castillo, Portuguese: Igreja de Santa Maria do Castelo), Holy Ghost Chapel (Capilla del Espíritu Santo, Capela do Espírito Santo), Saint Mary Magdalene Church (Iglesia de Santa María Magdalena, Igreja de Santa Maria Madalena, considered a masterwork of Portuguese Manueline architecture), Saint John of God Monastery (Monasterio de San Juan de Dios, Mosteiro de São João de Deus), the keep (torre del homenaje, torre de menagem), and the ruins of the Our Lady of Help Bridge (Puente de Nuestra Señora de Ayuda, Ponte de Nossa Senhora da Ajuda, destroyed in 1709 and never rebuilt).

Claims of sovereignty

Portugal does not recognise Spanish sovereignty over the territory (which from its perspective includes the entire municipality of Olivenza, Telega, and small portions of neighbouring municipalities), based on the rulings of the 1815 Congress of Vienna. Spain accepted the Treaty on 7 May 1817; however, Olivença and its surroundings were never returned to Portuguese control and this question remains unresolved[44] and Portugal holds a claim over it.[44] Olivenza was under Portuguese sovereignty from 1297. During the War of the Oranges, French and Spanish troops, under the command of Manuel de Godoy, took the town on 20 May 1801. In the aftermath of that conflict, the Treaty of Badajoz was signed, with the Olivenza territory remaining a part of Spain. According to Portugal, however, the treaty is void since Portugal was coerced into signing it, meaning it does not show the deliberate intent and "free will" necessary for treaty validity under international law and the subsequent position of Portugal after 200 years of not recognising it as a legitimate part of Spain seems to confirm exactly that.

Spain claims de jure sovereignty over Olivenza on the grounds that the Treaty of Badajoz still stands and has never been revoked, thus making the case that the border between the two countries in the region of Olivenza should be demarcated as said by the treaty.

Portugal claims de jure sovereignty over Olivenza on the grounds of the cancellation of the Treaty of Badajoz, since it was revoked by its own terms. It was stated in Article IV that a breach of any of its articles would lead to its cancellation, and when Spain invaded Portugal in the Peninsular War of 1807, Portugal saw it as a breach of Article I, which stipulated that, "There shall be peace, friendship, and good correspondence between His Royal Highness the Prince Regent of Portugal and the Algarves, and His Catholic Majesty the King of Spain, both by sea and by land, throughout the entire extent of their Kingdoms and Dominions."

Portugal further bases its case on Article 105 of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 (which Spain signed in 1817) that states that the winning countries are "committed to employ the mightiest conciliatory effort to return Olivenza to Portuguese authority" and that the winning countries "recognize that the return of Olivenza and its territories must be done".[45] Thus, the border between the two countries in the region of Olivenza should be demarcated by the Treaty of Alcanizes of 1297 and that the duty acknowledged by Spain to give back the region must be carried out.

Spain interprets Article 105 as not being mandatory on demanding Spain to return Olivenza to Portugal, thus not revoking the Treaty of Badajoz.

Even though Portugal has never made a separate formal claim to the territory after the Treaty of Vienna, it has not directly acknowledged Spanish sovereignty over Olivença either and has funded several projects connected to the region instead of the Spanish Government. It has been stated by the Portuguese government, as recently as 2004, that the issue is still frozen.[3][33] Border treaties since 1817, including the Treaty of Lisbon which partitioned the state of Couto Misto, have avoided any conclusion on the area of Olivenza.

Portuguese military maps do not show the border at that area, implying it to be undefined.[46][47] Also, the latest road connection between Olivenza and Portugal (entirely paid by the Portuguese state,[48] although it involved the building of a bridge over the Guadiana, an international river) has no indication of the Portuguese border, again implying an undefined status.

There is no research on the opinion of the inhabitants of Olivenza about their status. Spanish public opinion is not generally aware of the Portuguese claim on Olivenza. On the other hand, awareness in Portugal has been increasing under the efforts of pressure groups to have the question raised and debated in public.[49][50][51] Since 2014, it has been possible for those born in the region to obtain Portuguese citizenship upon request.[52]

Notable people born in Olivenza

See also

References

Explanatory notes
  1. Claimed by Portugal
Citations
  1. National Statistics Institute (13 December 2024). "Municipal Register of Spain of 2024".
  2. Merida, J. C. Z. (5 September 2003). "Portugal desmiente a la CIA y niega que haya un conflicto por Olivenza". El Periódico Extremadura (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 26 July 2011.
  3. "Martins da Cruz Afirma Que a Questão de Olivença "Está Congelada"". Grupo dos Amigos de Olivença (in Portuguese). 5 September 2003. Archived from the original on 9 March 2016.
  4. Leon, F. (18 March 2008). "Europacto en la frontera hispano-lusa". El Periódico Extremadura (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 26 July 2011.
  5. "Euroregião e Declaração de Olivença". www.cm-estremoz.pt (in Portuguese).
  6. Pizarro Gómez 2010, p. 75.
  7. Zamora Rodríguez & Beltrán de Heredia Alonso 2006, p. 1192.
  8. Zamora Rodríguez & Beltrán de Heredia Alonso 2006, p. 1219.
  9. Clemente Ramos 1994, p. 691.
  10. Clemente Ramos, Julián (1994). "La Extremadura musulmana (1142-1248). Organización defensiva y sociedad". Anuario de Estudios Medievales (in Spanish). 24 (1). Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas: 691. doi:10.3989/aem.1994.v24.995. S2CID 159559658.
  11. Russo, Mariagrazia (2007). "O espaço linguístico fronteiriço luso-espanhol. Percursos para a construção de identidades. Um olhar na raia alentejana / raya extremeña". Atas do Simpósio Mundial de Estudos de Língua Portuguesa (in Portuguese). University of Salento. doi:10.1285/i9788883051272p2077. ISBN 978-88-8305-127-2.
  12. Peralta y Carrasco, Manuel (2000). "El llamado Fuero de Baylío: Historia y vigencia del fuero extremeño". Brocar (in Spanish) (24): 7–18. doi:10.18172/brocar.1699.
  13. "plan general municipal de olivenza - SITEX".
  14. Pizarro Gómez 2010, pp. 76–77.
  15. Segovia, R.; Caso, R., eds. (2018). "La Orden del Temple y la frontera luso-leonesa (1145-1310)". Las frontera con Portugal a lo largo de la Historia: a propósito del 350 aniversario de la firma del Tratado de Lisboa (1668-2018). III Jornadas de Historia en Jerez de los Caballeros (6 de octubre de 2018) (in Spanish). Jerez de los Caballeros: Xerez Equitum. p. 42.
  16. Pizarro Gómez 2010, p. 76.
  17. Ventura, Margarida Garcez (2007). A definição das fronteiras, 1096–1297 (in Portuguese). Matosinhos: Quidnovi Editora. ISBN 978-972-8998-85-1.
  18. Peralta y Carrasco 2000, p. 8.
  19. Pizarro Gómez 2010, pp. 83, 87.
  20. García Blanco, Julián (2020). "La fortificación abaluartada de Olivenza en el siglo XVII. Origen y desarrollo" (PDF). I Jornada de fortificaciones abaluartadas y el papel de Olivenza en el sistema luso-español (in Spanish).
  21. Revilla Canora, Javier (2015). "Un noble napolitano en la Guerra de Portugal: Francesco Tuttavilla, duque de San Germán, general del ejército de Extremadura" (PDF). II Encuentro de Jóvenes Investigadores en Historia Moderna. Líneas recientes de investigación en Historia Moderna (in Spanish). Universidad Rey Juan Carlos. pp. 392–393. ISBN 978-84-15305-87-3.
  22. Pizarro Gómez 2010, p. 90.
  23. Cayetano Rosado 2013, pp. 1726–1728.
  24. Cayetano Rosado, Moisés (2013). "Del asedio de Badajoz en 1705 al de Campo Maior en 1712" (PDF). Revista de Estudios Extremeños. 69 (3): 1728.
  25. Vicente, António Pedro (2007). Guerra peninsular, 1801–1814 (in Portuguese). Matosinhos: Quidnovi Editora. ISBN 978-972-8998-86-8.
  26. Lavado Rodríguez, Fabián (2021). "La plaza de Olivenza en 1801/02" (PDF). O Pelourinho: Boletin de Relaciones Transfronterizas (25): 144. ISSN 1136-1670.
  27. In Ventura, António (2008). Guerra das Laranjas, 1801 (in Portuguese). Matosinhos: Quidnovi Editora. ISBN 978-989-628-075-8., the text of the Treaty of Badajoz: "[Preamble] [...] dois Tratados, sem que na parte essencial seja mais do que um, pois que a Garantia é recíproca, e não haverá validade em alguns dos dois, quando venha a verificar-se a infracção em qualquer dos Artigos, que neles se expressam. [...] Artigo I: Haverá Paz [...] entre Sua Alteza Real o Príncipe Regente de Portugal, e dos Algarves, e Sua Majestade Católica El-Rei de Espanha, assim por mar, como por terra em toda a extensão dos seus reinos [...]. Artigo III: Sua Majestade Católica [...] conservará em qualidade de Conquista para unir perpetuamente aos seus Domínios, e Vassalos, a Praça de Olivença, seu Território, e Povos desde o Guadiana; de sorte que este Rio seja o limite dos respectivos Reinos, naquela parte que unicamente toca ao sobredito Território de Olivença. [...] Artigo IX: Sua Majestade Católica se obriga a Garantir a Sua Alteza Real o Príncipe Regente de Portugal a inteira conservação dos Seus Estados, e Domínios sem a menor excepção, ou reserva. [...]"
  28. Potenciacion y Desarrollo Empresarial www.potenciacion.es. "AYUNTAMIENTO DE OLIVENZA". www.ayuntamientodeolivenza.com (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 22 May 2013.
  29. Blanco, Roberto; González, Mariano (2016). Historia de España 2º Bachillerato (LOMCE) 2016 (in Spanish). Editorial Editex. ISBN 978-84-9078-818-9.
  30. Instrumento de ratificación del Convenio y Protocolo adicional entre España y Portugal para regular el uso y aprovechamiento hidráulico de los tramos internacionales de los ríos Limia, Miño, Tajo, Guadiana y Chanza y sus afluentes, firmado en Madrid el 29 de mayo de 1968.. Article III states:

    El aprovechamiento hidráulico de las siguientes zonas de los tramos internacionales de los restantes ríos mencionados en el artículo primero será distribuido entre España y Portugal de la forma siguiente:
    [...]
    E) Se reserva a Portugal la utilización de todo el tramo del río Guadiana entre los puntos de confluencia de éste con los ríos Caya y Cuncos, incluyendo los correspondientes desniveles de los afluentes en el tramo.

    In the same article, sections A and B are assigned to Portugal, while C, D and F are assigned to Spain.

  31. "Instrumento de ratificación de España del tratado de amistad y cooperación entre España y Portugal, hecho en Madrid el día 22 de noviembre de 1977" (in Spanish) – via www.boe.es.
  32. Vallecillo Teodoro 2017, p. 1513.
  33. ""Una cuestión congelada", según Portugal". ABC (in Spanish). 15 September 2003.
  34. "Resolución de 6 de septiembre de 2004, de la Consejería de Cultura, por la que se incoa expediente de declaración de bien de interés cultural, para el puente de Ajuda en la localidad de Olivenza (Badajoz)" (in Spanish) – via www.boe.es.
  35. Maneta, Luis (11 June 2010). "Ruas de Olivença voltam a ter nomes portugueses". Diário de Notícias (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 12 June 2010.
  36. "Dezenas de habitantes de Olivença pedem e obtêm nacionalidade portuguesa". Diário Digital (in Portuguese). Lusa. 26 December 2014. Archived from the original on 27 December 2016.
  37. Dores, Roberto (5 March 2018). "Afeto cultural e oportunidade de emprego levam oliventinos à dupla nacionalidade". Diário do Sul (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 4 December 2018.
  38. "Olivença cada vez mais portuguesa" (in Portuguese). Sol. 14 March 2021.
  39. Agência Lusa (13 September 2024). "Nuno Melo diz que Olivença 'é portuguesa' e país 'não abdica'" [Nuno Melo says that Olivença 'is Portuguese' and that the country 'will not give up']. Observador (in Portuguese).
  40. @NunoMeloCDS (13 September 2024). "A opinião que tenho sobre Olivença é antiga e corresponde a uma posição de princípio, historicamente conhecida, que várias vezes defendi. Hoje repeti-a como presidente do CDS, embora num contexto equívoco, porque presente numa cerimónia como ministro" [The opinion I have about Olivença is old and corresponds to a historically known principled position that I have defended several times. Today I repeated it as president of the CDS, although in an equivocal context, because I was present at the ceremony as minister] (Tweet) (in Portuguese) – via X (formerly Twitter).
  41. "Olivença cada vez mais portuguesa" (in Portuguese). Sol Sapo. 14 March 2021.
  42. Pardo Fernández 2013, p. 815.
  43. Pardo Fernández 2013, pp. 815–816.
  44. Guo, Rongxing (2007). Territorial Disputes and Resource Management: A Global Handbook. New York: Nova Science Publisher. p. 199. ISBN 9781600214455.
  45. "Spain". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 13 December 2021. Archived from the original on 18 January 2026.
  46. "CIGeoE - Centro de Informação Geoespacial do Exército". www.igeoe.pt.
  47. "CIGeoE - Centro de Informação Geoespacial do Exército". www.igeoe.pt.
  48. "Portugal Fronteira invisível. "Se um dia Portugal e Espanha se unirem, a capital será Olivença"". Jornal i (in Portuguese). 28 September 2012. Archived from the original on 27 March 2014.
  49. Jefferies, Anthony (19 August 2006). "The Best of Both Worlds". Daily Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group.
  50. Mora, Miguel (4 December 2000). "La eterna disputa de Olivenza-Olivença". El País (in Spanish). Ediciones El País, S.L.
  51. Caetano, Filipe (18 January 2008). "Cimeira Ibérica: Olivença ainda é questão?". IOL Diário (in Portuguese). Media Capital Multimedia.
  52. Neves, Céu (16 January 2022). "Olivença. "O que fica da presença portuguesa é o património, a pedra é o que resiste"". Diário de Notícias.
Bibliography
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